KINGDOM ANIMALIA: VERTEBRATES

MAMMALS

The term mammal comes from the Latin word mamma (breast) and is used because these animals feed their young with milk produced by the mammary glands, or breasts. They are warm-blooded, have bodies covered with hair, and have well-developed brains. They may be found in water or on land. Seventy mammal species occur in Nova Scotia.

STAR-NOSED MOLE (Condylura cristata)

Size 34-78 g (1-3 oz) Young 2-7, March-April Diet worms, insects Life Span unknown Activity Pattern day or night, year-round

One group of small mammals are the insectivores, which include several species of shrews and one species of mole. Shrews are typically small and gray with sharp, pointed noses and tiny, beadlike eyes. Moles have tiny eyes, no external ears, and broad feet with the palms turned out for digging.

The star-nosed mole occurs throughout Nova Scotia. It is dark brown to black, weighs 34 g to 78 g, has a body 11 cm to 13 cm, and a scaly tail 7.5 cm to 9 cm long. It is the only mammal with a star of fleshy tentacles surrounding the nose. These 22 tentacles act as touch sensors to provide the mole with details of its environment.

Star-nosed moles inhabit low, wet soils especially near lakes, streams, and marshes. This animal builds shallow tunnels for travelling under cover, but it also travels on the surface more than other moles. Their tunnels are often wet, but they are good swimmers. The tentacles are folded over the nostrils when swimming or digging. Nests for the young are made of leaves or grass and are located in drier sites under logs, stumps, manure piles, and compost heaps.

Star-nosed moles are active day or night, often live in colonies, and remain active throughout the winter. They feed on insects, crustaceans, and molluscs in or out of water. Apparently moles can use their tentacles in water to detect electrical impulses from the nerves of their prey. Their strong odour and underground habits deter most predators. They are occasionally eaten by red-tailed hawks, great horned owls, or large fish.

LITTLE BROWN BAT (Myotis lucifugus)

Size 7-9 g (0.25-0.3 oz) Young 1, May-July Diet worms, insects Life Span 24 years Activity Pattern nocturnal, hibernate in winter

Bats are the only mammals to have mastered true flight. Their wings are thin, tough membranes that stretch from the sides and rear of the body and are supported by the arms, legs, and tail. Bats catch insects on the fly or off ground vegetation using their mouths or wings as nets. Each bat eats up to half its body weight in insects every night, the equivalent of 1,000 to 3,000 mosquitoes. Bats emit a rapid series of high-pitched cries when flying and use the echoes to navigate. When a flying insect is detected, they increase the frequency and pitch of their calls to home in on the echo from the insect’s body.

Six species of bats that breed most years in Nova Scotia include the little brown, long-eared, silver-haired, re, hoary, and eastern pipistrelle. Some reside year-round, hibernating in caves through the winter, while others migrate south.

The most common species throughout Canada is the little brown bat. These bats have long, silky brown hair. The hairs on the back are tipped with a shiny copper colour. The little brown bat usually weighs less than 10 g, is about 8 cm long, and has a wing-spread of 25 cm. These little bats zigzag over water, fields, and roads at dawn and dusk, feeding on insects.

Little brown bats hibernate together in caves through winter, subsisting on body fat. Mating occurs in late autumn or during the dormant period. Males and females go their separate ways when they emerge in April and May. Males, either alone or in small groups, hang upside down by their hind feet under tree bark or behind house shutters. Females form nursery colonies in warm, dark barns and attics. The newborn clings to its mother constantly for the first few days, even when she flies. At three weeks, the young bat can fly.

SNOWSHOE HARE (Lepus americanus)

Size 1.5-2 kg (3-4 lb) Young 2-4, April-July Diet plants Life Span 4-5 years Activity Pattern dawn-dusk, year round

Snowshoe hares are common across Canada, including Nova Scotia. This animal is also known as the varying hare because its colour changes from grayish brown in summer to white in winter to act as protective camouflage. It is also mistakenly called a rabbit. Rabbits have young that are born blind, hairless, and helpless in underground burrows. Young hares are born above ground, fully furred, with their eyes open, and are soon ready to run. Adult snowshoe hares are 33 cm to 46 cm long and weigh 1.5 kg to 2 kg. Their large hind feet have long toes and stiff hairs that act as snowshoes to support them on snow.

Snowshoe hares eat a variety of green vegetation, including vetches, dandelions, clovers, and daisies, as well as the leaves of aspens, birches, and willows. In winter, they feed on buds, twigs, bark, and needles of trees and shrubs. They usually feed at night, coming out from their rest sites under conifer boughs and logs, known as forms. Unlike deer, which break off twigs and leave ragged ends, hares neatly slice twigs with their sharp teeth and leave smooth ends.

Many predators feed upon snowshoe hares, including great horned and barred owls, lynx, bobcats, foxes, coyotes, minks, and humans. Hares have excellent hearing and may try to avoid detection by freezing and relying on their protective colouration, or by fleeing. They can travel with bounds up to 3 m long and speeds up to 17 km/h. They inhabit conifer thickets and alder swamps, and follow familiar runways between feeding and shelter areas.

Hare numbers can increase rapidly as females may have two or three litters of several young each year. Hare populations often appear to alternate between a period of abundance once every eight to ten years. These cycles seem to be more extreme in northern Canada than in the Maritimes.

EASTERN CHIPMUNK (Tamias striatus)

Size 65-127 g (2-4.5 oz) Young 3-5, May and August Diet plants, insects Life Span 3 years Activity Pattern diurnal, sleep in winter

A member of the squirrel family found across Nova Scotia is the eastern chipmunk. They are less abundant in the province than the red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus). They are around 27 cm long and weigh about 100 g. Chipmunks have distinctive gray, cream, and black stripes running down their backs. A characteristic of chipmunks is their large cheek pouches that they use to carry their winter supply of food to storage areas.

Chipmunks spend most of their time on the ground, although they are capable of climbing trees. They mainly inhabit dry, hardwood forests, but also inhabit hedgerows and gardens where tunnelling is easy. Chipmunks excavate extensive burrow systems with storage tunnels and a central chamber. They eat a variety of food such as nuts, seeds, berries, and insects.

Chipmunks are active during daylight hours from March to November. They enter the deep sleep of torpor for long periods during the winter but are not true hibernators.

WOODCHUCK (Marmota monax)

Size 2.2-4.5 kg (5-10 lb) Young 2-8, April-May Diet plants Life Span 6 years Activity Pattern diurnal, hibernate in winter

Woodchucks, also known as groundhogs, are the largest member of the squirrel family at 40 cm to 50 cm. Their grizzled, reddish brown appearance is created by alternating bands of black and buff guard hairs overlaying yellow-tipped underfur. Bellies and legs are reddish while the feet are black. Their stocky build, short tail, flattened head, small ears, and short, powerful legs are typical of a mammal that burrows and is often underground. Their front feet have well-developed toes with long, curved claws adapted for digging. Woodchucks excavate dens with extensive burrow systems. Dens may be 1.2 m to 1.5 m long, and have two or more openings. Some entrances are marked by mounds of soil, while the rest are concealed. Abandoned woodchuck dens are often used by other mammals like skunks and raccoons.

Woodchucks are found in fields, clearings, wooded edges, and rocky or brushy slopes across Canada and the eastern United States. They are not on Cape Breton Island. They take advantage of suitable habitats created by humans along railroad tracks, roads, and highway ramps. Home-range sizes may vary from 16 ha to 65 ha, depending on age, sex, and food supply. Woodchucks are active in daylight hours, feeding on tender green plants such as grasses, clovers, and cultivated crops. Their predators include coyotes and foxes.

Woodchucks put on large quantities of fat in late September and early October. They slowly enter hibernation over a period of three days to a month. Body temperature drop from 370C to 30C, heart rate slows from 80 to 5 beats per minute, and breathing rate and oxygen consumption are greatly reduced. Stored fat insulates the animal and is needed in April when hibernation ends and food is scarce. Woodchucks lose about 30 per cent of their fall body weight by spring.

RED SQUIRREL (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus)

Size 198-250 g (7-9 oz) Young 4-7, April and August Diet omnivore Life Span 6 years Activity Pattern diurnal, year round

The aggressive, noisy red squirrel is 30 cm long and weighs around 200 g. Belly and underparts are whitish, and the back and upper parts are brownish red in summer and grayish brown in winter. The bushy 10 cm to 15 cm tail is used for balance and to express agitation. Red squirrels are frequent prey for hawks, owls, martens, fishers, bobcats, lynx, weasels, and coyotes.

Red squirrels are common throughout mature softwood and mixed wood forests of Nova Scotia. They eat a variety of foods. Softwood seeds from cones form a large part of their diet. From midsummer, the squirrels cut green cones from tree tops and then bury or pile them near stumps and logs. These cone caches are characteristic of red squirrels. They also eat fruit, bark, insects, mice, bird eggs, and nuts from oak, beech, and hazel trees. They frequently harvest mushrooms and hang them in trees to dry.

These extremely agile rodents are mostly active in daylight hours and spend much of their time in trees. They burrow in the ground, but more often use tree nests. Perched high in a tree, the nests are made with plant material and are about 45 cm wide by 10 cm high, with one entrance. Red squirrels do not hibernate, but stay in their nests in very cold weather and emerge on warm winter days.

NORTHERN FLYING SQUIRREL (Glaucomys sabrinus)

Size 113-185 g (4-6.5 oz) Young 2-6, April-May Diet omnivore Life Span 10 years Activity Pattern nocturnal, year round

Common throughout Nova Scotia, northern flying squirrels are rarely seen as they are only active at night. Southern flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans) have been found in Kejimkujik National Park and the Gaspereau River Valley. Flying squirrels are smaller than red squirrels, with tails the same length, head and body length 3 cm shorter, and only half the weight. They have short, silky fur with gray on the upper body and white underneath.

These squirrels do not fly like a bird, but glide up to 30 m from high points. When gliding, they extend loose fold of fur- covered skin between their front and hind feet. The skin flaps and a long flattened tail help them glide, turn, upsweep, and brake.

Flying squirrels usually inhabit mature stands of softwood and mixed wood. They require suitable denning sites in trees, and often den up in small groups to conserve warmth. In summer, they also use bark or twig nests in trees.

Northern flying squirrels eat lichens, buds, nuts, seeds, fruit, leaves, and blossoms from various trees and shrubs. They also consume insects, birds, eggs, and carrion. Extra nuts and cones are stored in hollow trees, and the middens (shell piles) can be seen on stumps or under trees after feeding.

BEAVER (Castor canadensis)

Size 18-25 kg (40-55 lb) Young 4, May-June Diet trees, aquatic plants Life Span 12 years Activity Pattern diurnal, year round

Beavers are Nova Scotia’s largest rodent. They are known for their habit of building dams and dome-shaped lodges from mud and sticks. Dams are built to form ponds 2 m to 3 m deep to allow swimming under thick winter ice. Beaver lodges have underwater entrances to a central chamber that is above water. In fall, beavers store branches in food piles outside the lodges so they can remain active all winter.

Beavers are well adapted for aquatic life. They have webbed hind feet that have comblike claws for grooming waterproof oil through their coats. Lips meet behind the front teeth, allowing them to cut and peel branches underwater. Flaps in the nose and ears can be closed when diving. The flat, scaly tail serves as a rudder when swimming, a prop when standing or walking, and a lever when dragging logs.

Beavers come ashore to cut trees and grind vegetation. Their year-round diet consists of inner bark, leaves, buds, and twigs from aspen and other hardwood trees.

A beaver colony is socially centred around an adult female, and usually includes a mate, new kits, and young from the previous year. Young beavers leave the female’s lodge by their second spring to establish new colonies. Beavers inhabit slow-flowing streams, lakes, rivers, marshes, and coastal wetlands across Canada, including all of Nova Scotia. They usually live in forested areas, and aspens are their preferred food. Beavers are not easily predated but can be captured by bears, coyotes, fishers, bobcats, and lynx on land or when ice provides access to a lodge. Otters occasionally prey on young beavers, entering the lodge by the underwater tunnels.

DEER MOUSE (Peromyscus maniculatus)

Size 18-35 g (0.6-1 oz) Young 4, April-October Diet seeds Life Span 3 years Activity Pattern nocturnal, year round

In Nova Scotia there are several species of mice, voles, and rats. One of the most common members of this group is the deer mouse. It is widely distributed across Canada, found in virtually every possible dry habitat.

The two-coloured coat, like that of a deer, gave rise to its name. They may be gray or brown above and white underneath. Deer mice range in size from 18 g to 35 g, with bodies 7 cm to 10 cm long, and tails from 5 cm to 13 cm long. They have large thin ears, black eyes, and long whiskers. A close relative found in the western part of the province is the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus), which has a shorter, single-coloured tail.

Deer mice are active at night and through the winter. They den in groups to conserve heat in the winter. They feed primarily on seeds, as well as on insects, spiders, eggs, and mushrooms. They are agile tree climbers and gather seeds and buds, some of which are stored for winter. Unlike other native mice, deer mice readily enter buildings to obtain food, nest material, or shelter. Residents of buildings are usually either the house mouse (Mus musculus) or the Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus), both introduced species.

Deer mice usually produce two to four litters each year, and the young mice are ready to breed when they are five to six weeks old. If one pair of deer mice had four litters and all their young survived and bred, they could produce 10,000 young in one year. This situation is unlikely to occur as the deer mouse and the meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) are the major source of food for large predators. Owls, weasels, and foxes are their main predators. Other predators include snakes, short-tailed shrews, squirrels, skunks, minks, raccoons, bears, and coyotes.

MUSKRAT (Ondatra zibethica)

Size 1-1.4 kg (2-3 lb) Young 4-8, May-July Diet aquatic plants Life Span 3 years Activity Pattern diurnal, year round

The muskrat is the largest North American member of the rats, mice, and lemmings at 40 cm to 50 cm in length. Fur colour varies from light brown to black, with light gray underparts. The long, black scaly tail is flattened on both sides. Found from the Gulf of Mexico to Alaska, muskrats are common throughout the marshes, lakes, and rivers of Nova Scotia.

Muskrats are excellent swimmers. Their webbed feet push them forward, while their tail acts as a rudder to steer them. They have waterproof fur and lips that can close behind the front teeth to allow for underwater chewing. Muskrats are mainly herbivorous, eating aquatic plants. Up to 80 per cent of their diet may be cattails and bulrushes. They occasionally eat mussels, clams, fish, and amphibians. Young muskrats may be eaten by large predatory fish or snapping turtles. Adult muskrats may be caught by foxes, coyotes, minks, hawks, owls, and eagles.

The best habitat for muskrat has roughly equal amounts of open water and above-water vegetation. Water deeper than two-thirds of a metre is preferred, as freezing to the bottom is unlikely, and depths less than 2 m are best for abundant vegetation. A system of channels and feeding platforms connects to bank burrows and muskrat houses built with mud and vegetation. The houses are constructed in late summer or fall. They vary from 1 m to 1.4 m in diameter and rise 30 cm to 75 cm above the water surface. Houses have one or two underwater entrances and at least one dry resting chamber. Bank burrows are similar in design and are preferred sites for raising young. A characteristic feature in winter are “push-ups,” which are domes of frozen vegetation covering an open plunge hole in the ice where muskrats can feed.

PORCUPINE (Erethizon dorsatum)

Size 4-10 kg (9-22 lb) Young 1, May-June Diet trees Life Span 10 years Activity Pattern nocturnal, year round

Porcupines are the second largest rodent in Canada, next to the beaver, and can be up to 1 m in length. They are found in every province and territory except Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island. They are common across Nova Scotia but extremely rare on Cape Breton Island. Porcupines inhabit all forests types and have even adapted to living in prairie regions.

Porcupines are large, slow animals with three notable adaptations for their lifestyle. They have short, strong legs with powerful claws for climbing trees, and strong skulls and teeth for chewing bark and twigs from trees. Their best- known adaptation is one for defence from predators-about 30,000 stiff quills on the head, neck, back, and tail.

These quills can be raised by the porcupine when approached but cannot be thrown. Quills easily detach from the porcupine when touched, and have backward projecting scales that make them difficult to remove. Porcupines grow back damaged or lost quills in 10 days to 6 months. Fishers kill porcupines by repeated biting the unprotected head, flipping them over to eat at the unquilled underside. Bobcats, foxes, and coyotes occasionally prey on porcupines.

Porcupines are usually active at night. They feed on twigs, buds, and the inner bark of trees for most of the year, and leaves when available. They are attracted to salt sources and chew sweat-stained wood such as canoe paddles and axe handles. Porcupines are usually solitary except when mating in late autumn. They spend most of their time feeding or sleeping in trees or rock dens.

HUMPBACK WHALE (Megaptera novaeangliae)

Size 11-15 m (36-49 ft) Young 1, February-March Diet crustaceans, fish Life Span at least 18 years Activity Pattern day or night, migrate for winter

Whales, dolphins, and porpoises form a group of aquatic mammals known as cetaceans. Whales are divided into two groups. Toothed whales have simple peglike teeth. Baleen whales have strips of whalebone (baleen) rather than teeth, which can strain food organisms from the water. There are 11 species of toothed whales in the coastal waters of Nova Scotia. Baleen whales range in size from the minke whale (9 m), to the humpback (11 m-15 m), to the largest of all animals, the blue whale (30 m).

Humpback whales are black above and white underneath. They have a thick body with a small dorsal fin well back on the body and distinctive head knobs. Their long, narrow flippers are nearly one-third their body length and have fleshy knobs. Their large tail fluke has a ragged back edge, and individuals can be identified by the black-and-white tail patterns. Like most baleen whales, humpbacks have throat grooves to enable their throats to expand to take in huge gulps of water filled with organisms.

Humpbacks spend their winters in the Caribbean Sea. They migrate north for April to October to feed on krill, crustaceans, and schooling fish such as herring, capelin, and mackerel. Adults mate during the spring migration. Male humpbacks sing the longest and most complex mating songs in the animal kingdom. Females usually give birth every other year to a calf measuring 4.5 m to 5 m in length.

Humpback whales are fairly visible in the coastal waters of Nova Scotia from April to June or August to October as they migrate between polar and tropical seas. They are not fast swimmers but are active. They often leap out of the water or lie on their sides smacking the water with tails or flippers and blowing clouds of water vapour.

The humpback whale is designated as a species-at-risk. Their numbers were severely depleted by whalers in the early 1900s. They have been protected since 1966 and their populations are recovering slowly. The North Pacific population is a greater risk than the North Atlantic population.

EASTERN COYOTE (Canis latrans)

Size 13-16 kg (29-35 lb) Young 5-7, April-May Diet omnivore Life Span 15 years (captive) Activity Pattern nocturnal, year round

Coyotes are members of the dog family. They are usually tawny gray with a black swath along the middle of the back from shoulder to tail. Blond, red, and black colour variations are also found in Nova Scotia. Adult females average 13 kg and adult males average 16 kg. They are agile, usually travel with the tail low, can bound up to 5 m, and have maximum speeds of 55 km/h.

Historically a plains animal, the coyote expanded its range east and was first recorded in Nova Scotia in 1977. Eastern coyotes are now widespread across the province and even reached Newfoundland in 1987. During this period of range expansion, the eastern coyote gradually became a larger animal with coarser fur than the western form. Coyotes inhabit a wide range of habitats, from wooded areas to farmland, and even residential areas.

Coyotes are largely nocturnal, preferring to hunt either after dark or at dawn and dusk. In Nova Scotia, their main prey are snowshoe hares and white-tailed deer. Meat is obtained from capture of live prey or by eating dead animals. However, they are adaptable omnivores and consume insects, blueberries, apples, small mammals, and a variety of other items.

The basic social unit consists of a mated pair and their pups.

Coyotes may mate for life and defend their territory from other breeders. Both parents care for the young on a territory that averages 35 km2 to 40 km2. Coyotes often hunt in small packs of two to six individuals, especially in winter. They are suspicious of humans and avoid contact. Their howling calls are heard more often than they are seen.

RED FOX (Vulpes vulpes)

Size 4-5 kg (9-11 lb) Young 4-9, March-April Diet omnivore Life Span 12 years Activity Pattern dusk/dawn, year round

The red fox is the most widely distributed carnivore on earth. It occurs naturally throughout most of North America, Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa. It was introduced to Australia. The slender body, sharp pointed nose, triangular ears, black legs, and bushy tail are a familiar image. A characteristic white-tipped tail is common to all variations.

There are three major colour phases. The red phase is by far the most common, occurring in 45 per cent to 75 per cent of all red foxes. However, two other colours also occur in Canada. A black fox with white or silver-tipped guard hairs is known as the silver phase. The cross fox is dark with light, buffy patches near the legs, shoulders, and hips. A distinct “cross” of dark fur covers the shoulders.

Red foxes are found throughout Nova Scotia, usually in agricultural areas intermixed with woods. An abundance and variety of food is available to them in these mixed habitats, as well as denning sites. Pups are born in dens during March or April and can be seen playing near the den entrances in four to five weeks . Males hunt alone until pups are weaned at eight weeks, then both parents hunt. The family unit is maintained until fall, when the young must then fend for themselves. The adults remain solitary until the following breeding season.

Red foxes are non-specific predators and efficient scavengers. Up to half of their food intake is meadow voles, but other prey include snowshoe hares, pheasants, grouse, ducks, muskrats, frogs, turtles, insects, worms, eggs, and other small mammals. Berries, apples, garbage, and carrion are additional food sources. Foxes tend to hunt at dusk and dawn, and may travel up to 8 km in one night in search of food.

BLACK BEAR (Ursus americanus)

Size 45-200 kg (100-440) Young 1-3, January-February Diet omnivore Life Span 12 years Activity Pattern nocturnal, hibernate in winter

Black bears are the smallest and most common North American bear in Canada. They are the only bear species found outside the arctic and western regions of North America, and the only bear in Nova Scotia. Scattered across the province, black bears inhabit the forest, preferring wooded areas and swamps. They uses a variety of habitats and approach settled areas for easy food sources such as bee hives, agricultural crops, and garbage. They stand about 1 m high at the shoulder and can weigh up to 200 kg. Their coat colour varies from almost white to various shades of brown, but it is usually black, especially in the east.

Black bears shuffle when they walk, are good swimmers and climbers, and can sprint short distances at speeds up to 56 km/h. Most large and small mammals are too fast for bears to catch with any consistency. Their diet reflects the food available and includes plants and animals. They eat berries, apples, grasses, buds, leaves, fishes, mice, birds, eggs, frogs, insects, and larvae. The smell of decaying meat or garbage can be detected by their sensitive noses at distances over 1.5 km away.

Black bears have a variety of adaptations for their yearly cycles of denning and cub production. Each winter, as food becomes scarce, travel becomes difficult, and temperatures drop, they enter a new den under trees, rocks, or brush. They are considered hibernators as their body temperatures are reduced and their heart rate is slowed. They are fully unconscious but will waken if disturbed. Denned bears do not eat, drink, or eliminate waste during this time.

Adults mate in early summer, but the fertilized eggs will not implant and begin to grow until fall. Cubs are born during the winter in the den, and females must nurse the cubs from the body reserves stored the previous year. Newborn cubs weigh only 0.2 kg to 0.3 kg, but may grow rapidly to 4 kg at six weeks, and 30 kg at nine months. Females and cubs leave their den in early spring and remain together for another year.

RACCOON (Procyon lotor)

Size 5-8 kg (11-18 lb) Young 2-4, March-May Diet omnivore Life Span 13 years (captive) Activity Pattern nocturnal, sleep in winter

Most people are familiar with this nocturnal mammal. It has a characteristic dark eye-mask and ringed tail, along with a chunky, grayish brown body. Raccoons are abundant across mainland Nova Scotia and are found throughout Cape Breton Island. They are native to North America and occur throughout southern Canada and the United States. They often reach their highest numbers in urban areas.

Raccoons use a variety of habitats, especially along edges such as streams, marshes, and field/forest boundaries. They thrive in different habitats because they eat a variety of foods. They eat carrion, garbage, birds, mammals, insects, mussels, grains, fruit, and various plants. In spring, their diet is mostly animal matter, but it switches to approximately 70 per cent vegetable in the summer. One favourite food is immature corn.

The fall diet provides the store of fat that is used during the winter when raccoons are in dens. They do not hibernate, but doze for most of the winter venturing out on warmer days. Dens for winter and for raising young are located in hollow trees, logs, woodchuck burrows, brush piles, chimneys, attics, and other suitable spots. Dens often contain a number of adults and young sharing a site to conserve heat.

AMERICAN MARTEN (Martes americana)

Size 0.6-1.3 kg (1-3 lb) Young 1-5, March-April Diet small mammals Life Span 10 years Activity Pattern nocturnal, year round

Found throughout the boreal forests of Canada, American martens are members of the weasel family. They were native to Nova Scotia before trapping and habitat changes reduced their population significantly in the early 1900s. They were reintroduced in Kejimkujik National Park in the late 1980s and have established a small population. Sightings and tracks indicate there are martens remaining in a few areas of northwestern Cape Breton Island. Martens are associated with mature softwood forests with abundant dead and downed trees for denning and hunting.

Martens vary in colour from yellowish to very dark brown, and have a pale, cream-coloured throat and chest. Females have a 49 cm to 60 cm long body and a 13 cm to 18 cm long tail. Males are 55 cm to 64 cm long in their body and have a 15 cm to 20 cm long tail. Females can weigh 0.6 kg to 0.8 kg, while males can be 0.7 kg to 1.3 kg.

Martens are mainly nocturnal and active all winter. They are agile tree and spend a lot of time hunting above the ground. They are solitary animals that den in logs, stumps, or trees. Martens feed on mice, squirrels, snowshoe hares, insects, fruit, and birds.

FISHER (Martes pennanti)

Size 1.5-5.5 kg (3-12 lb) Young 1-6, March-April Diet small mammals Life Span 10 years Activity Pattern day or night, year round

Fishers are members of the weasel family and are found throughout the boreal forests of Canada. They are dark brown to black, with silver-tipped hairs on the back. They have bodies 51 cm to 63 cm and tails 33 cm to 38 cm in length. Females can weigh between 1.5 kg to 3 kg, while males can be 3 kg to 5.5 kg.

This species native to Nova Scotia was reduced to extremely low population numbers early in the twentieth century from heavy trapping and habitat changes. Fishers were successfully reintroduced to the western end of the province in 1947 and to northern areas in the 1960s.

Fishers are solitary animals, active all winter and can swim well. They can be active day or night. They feed mostly on mammals such as mice, squirrels, and snowshoe hares, as well as insects, fruit, and birds. Fishers scavenge meat from dead beaver, deer, and moose. They are also one of the few regular predators of porcupines. They kill porcupines by repeated biting on the unprotected head, then they flip them over to eat the unquilled underside.

Typically inhabiting mature softwood sites, fishers also use mixed woods and cut overs. They den in large logs, stumps, or trees. They hunt for their prey near fallen logs and brush.

SHORT-TAILED WEASEL (Mustela erminea)

Size 54-80 g (1.9-2.8 oz) Young 4-8, April-May Diet small mammals Life Span 7 years Activity Pattern nocturnal, year round

Weasels are small, slender, and effective predators. Males are larger than females, but only reach 30 cm in length, including the tail. Short-tailed weasels are notable for changing fur colour between seasons. Throughout most of the year, weasels are brown with a white belly and black-tipped tail. In winter, their fur is white, providing camouflage, except for the black-tipped tail.

The weasel species is found throughout the Northern Hemisphere and is also known as ermine or stoat. The long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata) is relatively common in New Brunswick, but there are no records of it being found in Nova Scotia. The short-tailed weasel is common across Nova Scotia, especially in forested areas. Adult home ranges are 12 ha to 16 ha, with males typically moving over larger distances than females.

Weasels tend to hunt at night. Their slender bodies allow them to burrow under logs, grasses, and snow after mice and voles. They climb trees to chase squirrels and chipmunks. They also feed on snowshoe hares, birds, amphibians, and invertebrates. Weasels store extra prey in their underground burrows or in their dens under logs and buildings. Larger carnivores such as coyotes, foxes, fishers, hawks, and owls prey on weasels.

AMERICAN MINK (Mustela vison)

Size 0.7-2 kg (1.5-4.5 lb) Young 3-8, April-May Diet small mammals, fish Life Span 10 years Activity Pattern dusk/dawn, year round

American minks occur throughout Canada and the United States, except in northern arctic and south-western deserts. Populations have also been established in Newfoundland,Iceland, Scandinavia, Great Britain, and the Soviet states with animals escaped from fur ranches. Minks occupy a variety of wetland habitats, including watercourses, lakes, marshes, and sea coasts.

Minks have long, slender bodies with short, sturdy legs and a thick, furred tail. Males are one and one-half times heavier than females, and the two sexes range from 49 cm to 72 cm in total body length. They are well known for their soft lustrous pelage, or coat, which varies from dark brown to almost black. Individuals have unique patterns of white patches on their chin, chest, or belly.

The dense coat is an adaptation for foraging in water. Minks can dive to depths up to 6 m, and swim underwater for distances up to 35 m. Though an expert swimmer, the toes of a mink are not webbed. Minks den in bank burrows excavated by other animals, especially muskrats. They may also use cavities in tree roots, brush piles, and beaver lodges.

Minks are most active during morning and evening, and are solitary, except during the mating season. They range for several kilometres along watercourses looking for food, often using several den sites. Their diet consists of animal matter such as small mammals, ducklings, songbirds, eggs, frogs, crayfish, beetles, fish, and occasionally bats and salamanders. They are also a major predator of muskrats.

STRIPED SKUNK (Mephitis mephitis)

Size 1-2 kg (2-4 lb) Young 3-8, May Diet omnivore Life Span 6 years Activity Pattern nocturnal, sleep in winter

Skunks are black-and-white mammals the size of a house cat, better known for their smell than their appearance. Adults weigh from 1 kg to 2 kg, and measure from 52 cm to 61 cm in body length, with the males about 15 per cent larger than females. Fur patterns vary, but all striped skunks are glossy black with white stripes.

Striped skunks are found from central British Columbia to the Maritimes, and south to Mexico. They disappeared from many areas of Nova Scotia during the 1920s and 1930s, likely because of an epidemic of the distemper disease. Skunk numbers recovered in most of the mainland, but they are still uncommon in the western counties and absent on Cape Breton Island. They inhabit semi-open forested areas but reach their highest numbers in agricultural lands.

Skunks are omnivores, feeding through the night on insects, fruit, grasses, grains, mice, and carrion. They occasionally eat birds’ eggs and nestlings, minnows, molluscs, frogs, and snakes. Great horned owls prey on skunks, as do hungry bobcats, foxes, coyotes, and fishers.

Using underground burrows from abandoned woodchuck dens or ones they dig themselves, skunks line the burrows with grasses and leaves. They acquire a heavy layer of fat in autumn. In early December they enter their dens to sleep for most of the winter. Adult females and young often form community dens with up to a dozen individuals. Skunks do not hibernate and may emerge during warm spells to feed. In late February and March, males move from den to den to breed with females. Skunks lose 10 per cent to 30 per cent of their body weight over winter before becoming fully active and feeding regularly in late March.

The skunks best-known feature is its ability to defend itself by spraying a highly repellant musk from glands under the tail. The oily fluid can be directed by the skunk in an accurate stream for up to 2 m, which then disperses in a fine spray for up to 6 m. Young skunks can spray their musk before they are two months old.

RIVER OTTER (Lutra canadensis)

Size 5-15 kg (11-33 lb) Young 2-3, March-April Diet fish, insects Life Span 15 years Activity Pattern diurnal, year round

River otters occur in all provinces except Prince Edward Island. They inhabit marine or freshwater environments throughout Nova Scotia. They have a long, stream lined body and tail. Adults range from 90 cm to 140 cm in total length, and 5 kg to 15 kg in weight. They are dark brown above and light brown to gray on the belly. Otters are the most aquatic members of the mustelid family, which includes the weasel, mink, marten, fisher, and skunk. Adaptations for the water include webbed feet, an insulated coat, ears that can close underwater, sensitive whiskers to feel food in dark conditions, and eyes set high on the head to see while swimming just below the surface. They can stay underwater for up to four minutes. They also have rough patches on the hind feet that provide a better grip on slippery surfaces. Otters often leave a characteristic trail in mud or snow as they slide down slopes on their bellies.

Wetlands where beaver have been active provide good sites for otters to rest and feed. Otters use old beaver and muskrat burrows for cover. These dens are necessary to protect their young, which require three months before they can travel. Otters search for food in water and around fallen trees, log jams, and beaver cuttings. They feed mostly on slow-moving fishes, as well as insects, crab, snakes, frogs, voles, shrews, and muskrats. Predation on otters is rare in water but they are occasionally captured on land by other carnivores.

EASTERN COUGAR (Felis concolor)

Size 36-90 kg (80-200 lb) Young 3, March or July Diet deer Life Span 12 years Activity Pattern nocturnal, year round

The three members of the cat family found in Canada are the cougar, lynx, and bobcat. Cougars are also known as mountain lions and used to be found from the Yukon to Chile and east to Nova Scotia. They still occur regularly in British Columbia and the Rocky Mountains of Alberta. Just as they had done to wolves, settlers tried to kill any cougars found. By the 1900s, the population of these big cats was greatly reduced or even extirpated from central and eastern Canada.

Male cougars are much larger than females with a body length from 170 cm to 275 cm, tail length of 66 cm to 90 cm, and weight of 45 kg to 90 kg. Females range in body length from 150 cm to 230 cm, tail length of 53 cm to 81 cm, and weight of 36 kg to 63 kg. Their long tails are a distinctive feature. Coat colour varies from gray to yellow brown with a white belly. The back of the ears and the tip of the tail are black.

A variety of forested habitats are used by this solitary, nocturnal hunter. They capture their prey by stalking and leaping rather than chasing. Cougars feed mostly on large mammals, especially deer. Moose, porcupines, beavers, snowshoe hares, mice, and birds are also eaten.

Sightings of eastern cougars are reported on occasion in Nova Scotia, but there has been no tangible evidence to confirm their presence. All reported sightings are recorded and investigated by wildlife agencies. It is considered unlikely that there is a breeding population of eastern cougar in the province. The cougar species is not threatened in Canada, but the population of the eastern subspecies (Felis concolor couguar) is listed separately as a species-at-risk.

LYNX (Felis lynx)

Size 8.5-10.5 kg (19-23 lb) Young 2, April-May Diet snowshoe hares Life Span 12 years Activity Pattern nocturnal, year round

The lynx is the most widely distributed of Canada’s three cats. It is found throughout the boreal forest region. In Nova Scotia, the lynx is most common on the highlands of Cape Breton Island and is rare on the mainland. Adult males weigh about 10 kg, females average 8.5 kg in weight, and both sexes are 80 cm to 90 cm long from head to tail.

This is a long-legged cat with a short body and a stubby tail. The tail is black around the entire tip, compared to the bobcat tail that has narrow bands and black only on the top. The lynx has a ruff of fur around the face and long, black hairs come to a point on the ears. Coat hairs are long and silky and are replaced every spring and fall. The coat is grayish brown with light gray or white underparts.

Lynx are active year-round, moving mainly at night. They are agile climbers and can swim when necessary. They rest under trees or rock ledges. Like the bobcat and cougar, lynx hunt by sight and sound. Most of their prey are ambushed, with little energy spent on chasing. Lynx feed on mice, voles, squirrels, and grouse, and also scavenge on dead animals. They take fawns or moose calves on rare occasions. However, over 40 per cent of the summer diet and more than 60 per cent of the winter diet is made up of snowshoe hares.

An adult lynx usually eats two snowshoe hares every three days. Like hares, lynx have large, furry paws that act as snowshoes to help them travel in snow. They use the same young, dense softwood thickets and swamps where hares are typically found. Since lynx are so dependent on hares for food, their population levels rise and fall with the cycles in snowshoe hare numbers.

BOBCAT (Felis rufus)

Size 7-13 kg (15-29 lb) Young 2, April-May Diet small mammals Life Span 12 years Activity Pattern nocturnal, year round

Bobcats occur through most of the United States, north-central Mexico, and parts of southern Canada. These cats were found over mainland Nova Scotia, but did not expand into Cape Breton until the late 1950s or early 1960s, after the Canso Causeway was built. Bobcat males average 88 cm in length, while females average 80 cm in length. Both sexes have inconspicuous black ear tufts and short tails (14 cm long) that are white below with a broad black band on the upper tip. Fur colour can range in shade between yellow, brown, gray, and reddish and is flecked with dark streaks and spots.

Adults are territorial and home ranges of males are usually two to five times larger than those of females. These cats are primarily nocturnal and solitary, except for the female with young. Kittens are weaned at two months of age but usually remain with the female into their first winter. Bobcats use various dens for daily resting spots, as well as birth sites. Beds of mosses and leaves may be made in rock crevices, hollow logs, or thickets.

Snowshoe hares are the most frequent prey of bobcats. Although bobcats occasionally catch live deer, carcasses are more frequently the source of deer meat. Small mammals, birds, and porcupines are also eaten. Bobcats use a variety of habitats, especially coniferous stands with dense understorey vegetation.

HARBOUR SEAL (Phoca vitulina)

Size 60-70 kg (132-154 lb) Young 1, May-June Diet fish Life Span 17 years (captive) Activity Pattern tidal, year round

Four seal species are found in the coastal waters of Nova Scotia. They include the harp seal (Phoca groenlandica), hooded seal (Cystophora cristata), grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), and the harbour seal. The harbour seal is the most common species off the coast of mainland Nova Scotia, while the grey seal is more common in Cape Breton. The harbour seal has a round, smooth head, while the grey has a long, straight head.

Harbour seals occur along the northern coasts of Europe, Asia, and North America. They inhabit coastal waters, including bays, harbours, and river estuaries. They are not confined to salt water and can range inland after fish. Their diet is primarily fish, along with squid, octopus, clams, and occasionally crayfish, crab, or shrimp.

Harbour seals average 1.5 m in length and 60 kg to 70 kg in weight. Their coat colour varies. The background can range from creamy white to dark brown, the back is usually light brown with irregular dark spots or patches, and the creamy white underside has scattered dark brown spots. Their coats are replaced each year between August and November.

Their activity pattern reflects the tides and weather. They haul out of the water at low tide to rest on sand bars and rocky shoals, forming loose groups of up to 500 individuals. With the incoming tide they remain in the water to feed. They can dive up to 100 m for short periods and can remain under water for 20 minutes. Harbour seals mate in shallow water or on sand bars.

Pups are born with their eyes open, measure 60 cm to 90 cm in length, and weigh 9 kg to 13 kg. After their first week, pups are strong enough to dive in shallow water and to drag themselves ashore. Young seals will double in weight by their first winter but are not sexually mature until five or six years of age.

WHITE-TAILED DEER (Odocoileus virginianus)

Size 25-150 kg 55-330 lb() Young 1-3, May-June Diet plants Life Span 10 years Activity Pattern dawn/dusk, year round

Nova Scotia’s most common large mammal is the white-tailed-deer. This deer is named for its distinctive flaglike tail that is 30 cm long, brown above and white underside. When disturbed, a white-tailed-deer will flash the white underside of its tail. Standing about 1 m high at the shoulder, females can weigh 25 kg to 100 kg. Males can weigh 35 kg to 150 kg and carry spiked antlers, which they shed each winter. The short summer coat is reddish brown, while the longer, warmer winter coat is grayish. Deer are very fast and agile, bounding up to 9 m in a leap and running as fast as 65 km/h.

Archaeological digs revealed evidence that deer were present in Nova Scotia several thousand years ago, but likely disappeared due to changes in climate. Deer returned to this province early in the twentieth century. They moved in from New Brunswick on their own and were also introduced by humans.

White-tailed deer occur from South America to most of southern Canada. They are common across Nova Scotia, using edge areas between forests and openings. Fields and cut overs are important feeding sites, especially when close to forest cover areas. Deer feed on a variety of vegetation. They eat grasses, herbs, leaves, clover, apples, mushrooms, and other plants from spring through to fall. In winter, they eat mostly hardwood twigs and buds, as well as lichens hanging from trees.

Deer breed in the fall and, as a result males (bucks) often lose weight before entering the winter season. Deer restrict their movements in winter to save energy because of cold temperatures, difficult travel, and less abundant and nutritious food. They may gather in periods of deep snow in preferred wintering areas with dense softwoods for shelter from snow and wind. By late winter, they are often in poor body condition, and population numbers can decline from starvation and predators such as dogs, coyotes, and bobcats.

Females (does) give birth in late May or early June. The number of fawns reflects the condition of a doe, which is based on summer food and winter stress. Usually one or two fawns are born, and occasionally three or more may be born. Fawns are born with reddish brown coats with white spots. The spotted coat helps to camouflage them from predators such as bears and coyotes. The fawns are also protected because they give off almost no odour to attract predators. Fawns are hidden from predators until they are strong enough to keep up.

MOOSE (Alces alces)

Size 270-500 kg (594-1100 lb) Young 1-2, May-June Diet plants Life Span 12 years Activity Pattern dawn/dusk, year round

The moose is the largest member of the deer family and the larges land mammal in Nova Scotia. These dark brown animals have long gray legs, humped shoulders, large ears, long heads and muzzles, and a skin flap or “bell” hanging from the throat. Males weigh more at 400 kg to 500 kg than females at 270 kg to 350 kg. Both sexes are 1.5 m to 2 m in height at the shoulder. Males, known as bulls, carry a new set of antlers on their head each year from spring to early winter.

Moose can be found from Alaska to Newfoundland, except in a few coastal, tundra, and urbanized areas. In Nova Scotia, moose are most common in the highlands of Cape Breton Island, but they occur in small numbers throughout the province. They inhabit young forests, including wet sites near lakes and swamps.

The name “moose,” from the language of the Algonkians, means “eater of twigs.” Moose browse in winter on twigs of trees and shrubs such as willows, aspens, and balsam fir. In summer this diet of twigs is complemented by leaves, herbs and grasses as well as aquatic plants such as the water lily. Moose are strong swimmers and will dive for submerged vegetation. They daily require about 2.2 kg of plant matter for every 50 kg of body weight.

Moose can be active at any time but are especially active at dawn and dusk. They are seen in small groups during the breeding season. Breeding bulls as well as females (cows) with calves are aggressive. Females usually breed for the first time at two and one-half years of age. Although mature, young bulls usually do not get the opportunity to breed until they are five or six years old as the older and larger bulls out compete them for mates. Females often give birth to twins, which are 1 m in length. After two weeks, the calves are moving about, following the cow. Weighing 10 kg to 16 kg at birth, they double their weight in three weeks. Black bears are the only effective natural predators of moose in Nova Scotia, taking mostly calves in spring and early summer.